For as long as they have been on Earth, humans have looked up into the night sky with awe. For thousands of years, that’s what we asked: What’s going on out there? Can we visit other worlds? Today, for the first time ever, we can answer those questions with a resounding “yes.” Thanks to the partnership between our agency and private industry, this vision for future human exploration is not just a dream but a reality.
Space agencies and private companies around the world are currently constructing rockets, designing habitats and training astronauts for missions that were unfathomable just decades ago. We are about to go back to the Moon, set up bases on Mars and maybe even asteroids and some of the moons circling other planets. It isn’t science fiction; it’s the next chapter in human history.
Where we’re going, how we’ll get there and what obstacles we need to address. If you’re interested in Moon colonies, Mars cities, or mining asteroids, you will come to find all the amazing possibilities that lie ahead for us among the stars.
Why We Need to Leave Earth
Before we get into where we’re going, let’s discuss why getting off of Earth is so important. It’s not just a matter of satisfying our curiosity, or planting flags on remote worlds. There are practical reasons becoming a multi-planet species is critical to the survival of humanity.
Protecting Humanity’s Future
Earth faces several long-term threats. Asteroid demolitions, climate alterations, pandemics and even eventual changes in our sun might threaten life on our world. When we colonize other planets, we build a “do-over” for human life. If the Earth suffers an ecological disaster or mass nuclear war, human culture might survive elsewhere.
Accessing New Resources
There are valuable resources in space that are running out on Earth. There are trillions of dollars’ worth of metal in these asteroids — platinum, gold and rare earth elements. What is remarkable: The moon has helium-3, an element that might one day power fusion reactors. There’s water ice on Mars, and there are minerals we can use to construct and support colonies.
Advancing Science and Technology
Space exploration drives innovation. Space missions frequently result in technology that has everyday applications. From GPS, satellite communications and medical devices to water purification systems, space research has produced myriad inventions that enhance life on Earth.
Inspiring Future Generations
And perhaps most important of all, space exploration motivated people. It’s a reminder of what’s possible when we act together to achieve ambitious goals. The young people who watch astronauts journey to other worlds might well grow up to be the scientists, engineers and leaders who will help solve some of tomorrow’s biggest challenges.
Back to the Moon: The First Destination in Human Exploration
The moon is Earth’s nearest neighbor in space, and it flies around our planet at a virtually constant distance of 238,855 miles. We went there last in 1972, during the Apollo program, but now we’re returning — and this time to stay.
NASA’s Artemis Program
NASA’s Artemis program aims to land humans on the Moon’s south pole in the mid-2020s. Unlike the Apollo missions, which were brief visits, Artemis intends to set up a permanent human presence. The program will be the first to land women and people of color on the Moon, ushering in a new era in space exploration.
The south pole is unique in that it harbors cold, permanently shadowed craters that contain water ice. This is valuable ice — we can make drinking water, breathable oxygen and even rocket fuel out of it. With these resources on the Moon, we won’t have to carry everything from Earth, making missions cheaper and more sustainable.
The Lunar Gateway
NASA and its partners from around the world are constructing the Lunar Gateway, a small space station that will circle the Moon. Call it a pit stop between planet Earth and the lunar surface. Before landing on the Moon, astronauts will utilize the Gateway as an intermediate point. It will be a lab for experiments, and it will act as a staging area for missions that go farther out in space.
Moon Bases and Habitats
Scientists and engineers are developing bases the Moon can support on a permanent basis. Such habitats will shield astronauts from severe temperatures (from minus-280°F to 260°F), lethal radiation and the striking of tiny meteoroids. Bases on the Moon in the future could be constructed underground, or using lunar soil (regolith) to shield against radiation.
3D printing technology could also be used to support the construction of such bases with materials derived from the Moon. Robots could build habitats in advance, before humans arrive at all — and possibly even have them ready to go when the first residents arrived.
Moon Mission Major Milestones
| Planned Timeframe | Objective | Mission |
|---|---|---|
| 2025-2026 | Test equipment for support systems around the Moon | Artemis II (crewed orbit) |
| 2026-2027 | Land crew by moon’s south pole, first time since 1972 | Artemis III (landing) |
| 2027-2028 | Construct an orbital outpost | Lunar Gateway operational |
| Early to mid-2030s | Human presence established | Permanent Moon base |
Mars: The Next Giant Leap
No other planet has seized human interest like Mars. It’s cold, alien and downright inhospitable to life as we know it — but the most Earth-like planet in our own solar system is probably Mars. That must be prime human colonization real estate.
Why Mars?
There are several reasons to move humans to Mars:
Day Length Similarity: One day on Mars (a sol) is approximately 24 hours and 37 minutes, with a similar length as Earth’s days
Resources: Mars has water ice, a carbon dioxide atmosphere (which we can use to make rocket fuel and oxygen), minerals, and other resources that we can use.
Previous Habitability: Indications of water and potential for life-based-on-water characteristics
Average Distance: Mars is near by astronomical standards, with travel time of 6-9 months.
Getting to Mars
Mars travel poses significant problems. The trip is months long, and astronauts will have to endure radiation, muscle and bone mass loss from zero-g environments and psychological strain from isolation. Spacecraft are required to pack enough food, water, oxygen and equipment for their whole mission.
The Starship rocket is being specifically designed by SpaceX, the company founded by Elon Musk, to fly to Mars. The fully reusable spacecraft is intended to carry up to 100 people and large amounts of cargo. Elon Musk’s SpaceX plans to create a city on Mars that is home to one million people by the 2050s.
NASA’s is a bit more cautious, but just as determined. Their Mars strategy is a step-by-step process: First, send cargo and equipment to test technologies and make sure they are working before people fly there. The first human mission to Mars could take place in the late 2030s or early 2040s.
Living on the Red Planet
What would a typical day be like on Mars? The earliest colonists would have their work cut out for them:
Atmosphere: Mars has an atmosphere that’s 95% carbon dioxide and only 1% as thick as the Earth’s. Humans can’t breathe it, and it does not offer much in the way of protection from radiation. Colonists would live inside pressurized habitats and wear spacesuits while outside.
Temperature: Mars’s temperatures average around -80°F (-60°C), but can fluctuate anywhere from a biting cold 195 degrees below zero at the poles during winter to a balmy 70 degrees above the equator in summer. Habitats would require hearty insulation, as well as robust heating systems.
Gravity: With just 38% the gravity of Earth, Mars will allow us to jump three times higher than we can on our home planet. It would feel weird at first but might have the kind of health effects we don’t quite understand yet.
Food Production: Colonists on Mars would be unable to depend on food shipped from Earth. They would have to grow their own food in greenhouses with Martian soil, artificial lighting and recycled water (after purifying it of toxic chemicals).
Energy: Solar panels might generate energy, but dust storms can darken the sky for more than a week. Perhaps nuclear reactors would be a more reliable option.
Space Stations: Living And Working In Orbit
As much attention as it gets, Moon and Mars bases only capture headlines; just as critical (if not quite so sexy), are space stations that will orbit Earth and other solar system spots during humanity’s expansion out into the cosmos.
International Space Station Legacy
The first humans to visit the ISS arrived on 2 November 2000. It has taught us invaluable lessons about how to live in space: how to recycle water and air, grow food in microgravity, keep our bodies healthy and work with international partners.
The ISS isn’t going to last forever — it’s due for retirement sometime around 2030. But a few private companies are working to build commercial space stations in its stead.
Commercial Space Stations
Companies like Axiom Space, Blue Origin and Orbital Reef are developing private space stations for research, manufacturing — even tourism. Such stations could be converted into orbital hotels, laboratories and manufacturing sites where factories can produce materials that cannot be made on Earth because of gravity.
Stations Around Other Worlds
Out beyond Earth orbit, we will probably build stations in the vicinity of Mars as well, with functions equivalent to the Lunar Gateway’s. Such outposts could support surface operations, shelter colonists in the event of an emergency and make it easier to travel between Mars and its moons, Phobos and Deimos.
Asteroid Mining: The Next Gold Rush in the Cosmos
Asteroids may not be as sexy as planets, but they could turn space exploration into a profitable enterprise. These space rocks are potentially rich with minerals.
What Makes Asteroids Valuable?
Some asteroids have more platinum than has been extracted in the entire history of Earth’s mining. Others have iron, nickel, gold and rare earth elements that are part of electronics technology or advanced technology. Indeed, a large metallic asteroid could be worth trillions of dollars.
Water-rich asteroids are equally valuable. Out in space, water is fuel — we can break it into hydrogen and oxygen to propel rockets. If you could put “gas stations” in space, the solar system would be humanity’s oyster!
How Asteroid Mining Would Work
Companies from Planetary Resources to Deep Space Industries (though both have had financial struggles) have put forward a variety of mining plans:
Capture and Redirect: Nudge small asteroids into an orbit around either the Earth or Moon by employing a spacecraft.
In-Place Processing: Send robots out to mine asteroids and bring back just the valuable ores.
Water Mining: Mining of ice-rich asteroids, for turning into rocket fuel
The earliest asteroid mining experiments will probably take place in near-Earth space, where less fuel is required to get there.
Economic Impact
A form of space-based resource exploitation could revolutionize Earth-bound economies: Asteroid mining. Flooding the market with platinum or gold, he said, might depress their prices but also make these materials cheap enough to be widely used in technology and possibly even spur new innovations.
The Technology Making It Possible
But technology is absolutely key in realizing none of these bold ambitions. Here are five main leaps in technology allowing humans to venture into space:
Advanced Rockets and Propulsion
Chemical rockets as we conceive of them today are expensive because we are limited to using them once. SpaceX’s Falcon 9 turned the business of space flight upside down by capturing and reusing rocket boosters. Their Starship goes one step further – the whole vehicle is reusable, cutting about 10-100x off launch costs.
Future propulsion might include:
Nuclear Thermal Rockets: Getting More Boost Out of Atomic Reactions
Ion drives: These are already used on some spacecraft and could allow for faster travel between planets.
Solar sails: Big mirrors prodded along by sunlight
Life Support Systems
Recycling is critical in space. The ISS already recycles about 90% of water, a system that includes turning astronauts’ urine and sweat into fresh drinking water (don’t worry, it’s extremely purified!). Next generation systems will have to be even more efficient, perhaps recycling nearly 100% of such resources.
In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU)
ISRU is to live off the land rather than carry all your supplies from Earth. Technologies in development include:
- Mining water from lunar or Martian ice
- Producing oxygen from Martian atmosphere
- Building rocket fuel from scratch
- Building materials from Mars and the moon
3D Printing and Construction
Local materials could be used to print tools, spare parts and even habitats. 3D printers have been tested on the ISS by NASA, and future iterations may even print up structures on the Moon or Mars before astronauts make touchdown.
Artificial Intelligence and Robotics
We will no longer go to space alone with AI and robots. They can:
- Browse scout landing sites and chart the landscape
- Construct habitats in dangerous environments
- Maintain equipment and perform repairs
- Assist astronauts with complex tasks
- Operate mining equipment on asteroids
The Biggest Challenges We Face
Space exploration isn’t easy. There are major obstacles we must overcome before a large human colonization can get underway.
Radiation Exposure
Earth’s magnetic field and its atmosphere shield us from harmful cosmic radiation, and solar particles. Astronauts are exposed to much higher levels of radiation in space, which can elevate the risk of cancer and other health problems. Current spacecraft and spacesuits offer some protection, but long journeys to Mars are still worrisome.
Possible solutions include:
- Water-lined craft walls (water absorbs radiation)
- Electromagnetic shields that replicate Earth’s magnetic field
- Moon- and Mars-based underground settlements
- Rockets firing faster to shorten the trip
Health Effects of Low Gravity
Astronauts on the ISS work out two hours daily, but experience bone loss and muscle atrophy; Mars’s weaker gravity could slow this decline — but before anyone flies there, we’ll need to understand how that works in the long term. Will a child born on Mars ever see Earth? Their bodies could fail to adjust to our higher gravity.
Psychological Challenges
Now imagine being locked in with the same small group of coworkers for months, or even years — millions of miles from Earth — unable to go outside without a spacesuit and communicating with loved ones only after long lags. Space missions take their toll on mental health.
NASA goes to great lengths to ensure that astronauts are mentally tough, training them in conflict resolution. In future missions, the crew who launch might include psychologists and crews on long missions could use virtual reality to give comfort breaks for the mind.
Cost and Funding
Space exploration is expensive. The Apollo program’s price tag was about $280 billion in today’s dollars. Mars missions would be hundreds of billions more. Governments and companies are spending billions, but it’s hard to keep funding in place over the many years these projects require.
Developing economically productive activities in space, such as tourism, mining and manufacturing, could also be a means of supporting the exploration enterprise.
International Cooperation and Space Law
Who owns the Moon? May a company stake the claim to an asteroid? According to the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, no nation can own and claim celestial bodies, but it is unclear how this provision applies to private companies or resource extraction.
As more nations and companies enter space, we must also have updated laws or agreements to prevent conflict and maintain the peaceful exploration of that final frontier.
Beyond Mars: The Distant Future
Mars isn’t where humans will stop, though. Further into the future still, yet more ambitious scenarios arise.
Jupiter’s and Saturn’s Moons
Europa, a moon of Jupiter, is believed to have an ocean similar to Earth’s — only larger; it could hold more water than all the oceans on Earth if we drained Europa dry. Enceladus, one of Saturn’s moons, has the same subsurface oceans and geysers erupting water into space. Both might harbor life.
We may not visit there for some time (Jupiter is 390-600 million miles from Earth), but robotic missions could look for signs of alien life, and in the late 21st or during the 22nd century, humans might follow.
Titan: A World of Liquid
Saturn’s biggest moon, Titan, harbors lakes and rivers — but they contain not water, but liquid methane and ethane. Its thick, Earth-like atmosphere and Earth-like processes make it an interesting study — and potential site for colonization — but temperatures of -290 degrees Fahrenheit are a tough place to call home.
Interstellar Travel
A few scientists and futurists have fantasized about visiting other star systems. The closest stellar neighbor of ours is 4.24 light-years away (some 25 trillion miles) and is called Proxima Centauri. With today’s technology, a spacecraft would take tens of thousands of years to get there.
Future technologies like:
Generation ships: Gigantic space ships in which thousands of generations are born and die during their voyages.
Suspended animation: Freezing travelers in stasis for the journey
Light sails: Propelling small spacecraft with strong lasers to a fraction of the speed of light
These ideas are still theoretical but it says a lot about the scope of human ambition.
These Are the Ways You Can Be Part of Space Exploration
You don’t have to be an astronaut to join humanity’s push into space. Many paths lead to the stars.
Education and Careers
Unlike other endeavors, all types of individuals are needed for space exploration:
- Engineers design spacecraft and habitats
- Planets are the center of attention for scientists who plan missions
- Doctors and biologists study space medicine and life support
- AI and mission control software is developed by computer programmers
- Teachers inspire the next generation
- Costs of space ventures are driven down by business professionals
Emphasize STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics) but don’t forget that space programs require artists, writers, lawyers and other skills.
Citizen Science
A lot of space projects need help crunching numbers. You can:
- Look for asteroids or exoplanets with online tools
- Process images from Mars rovers
- Participate in astronomy research on projects such as Zooniverse
Following and Supporting Space Programs
Stay informed about space missions, watch launches, visit a space museum, and advocate for funding policies of science! Your enthusiasm and advocacy matter. For more information about current space missions and programs, visit NASA’s official website.
Commercial Space Tourism
Space tourism: Companies such as SpaceX, Blue Origin and Virgin Galactic are making space travel available to everyone. The cost is currently astronomical (hundreds of thousands to millions of dollars) but they should come down. Space travel could be as simple tomorrow for future generations as flying to another country is today.
What Success Looks Like
Think of the future if we pull off these grand plans. Within 30 years, hundreds of people could be living and working on the Moon. The first human footprints could dry in Martian soil, while a small research base may operate there year-round. Automated miners could harvest resources from asteroids, and private space stations might encircle Earth.
By 2100, Mars could be home to thousands of residents living in a number of different settlements. The Moon could contain many other bases, operated by nations and companies. Humanity would have redundant populations on other planets, guaranteeing our species will survive whatever may come to pass here.
Much farther out, we could see humans expand to the outer solar system and then the stars. We would have taken steps toward becoming a real spacefaring civilization.
Frequently Asked Questions
Q: What is the time frame for a human mission to Mars?
A: NASA is seeking the late 2030s or early 2040s, while SpaceX would like to get there in the late 2020s or early 2030s. It’s hard to say exactly when, however, because that will depend on technology development, funding and testing success. They and most experts see the 2030s-2040s as realistic for the first crewed one.
Q: How long does it take to get to Mars?
A: It would take about six to nine months at current propulsion technology. The specific length of time is dependent on the respective positions of both Earth and Mars in their orbits. Quicker propulsion systems may bring this down to 3-4 months.
Q: Can people live in space for an extended period?
A: Russian cosmonaut Valeri Polyakov holds the title, with 437 days in space. Studies indicate that it’s possible for humans to survive in space for long periods of time with appropriate exercise and nutrition, but health concerns such as bone loss and muscle atrophy have to be managed. We don’t know a whole lot yet about living in space long-term.
Q: How much does a space mission cost?
A: Costs vary dramatically. The ISS cost some $150 billion over its lifetime. Each individual Space Shuttle flight cost about $450 million. SpaceX has also apparently cut launch prices to the $60–70 million range for Falcon 9 flights. A human mission to Mars could cost $100 billion-$500 billion depending on strategy and technology.
Q: What if there is an illness or injury in space?
A: Astronauts are trained in medicine, and the spacecraft are equipped with medical supplies. For lesser ailments, they self-treat with the help of Earth. Severe medical crises would be a problem for distant missions like one to Mars, where return isn’t possible right away. Doctors will be required for future missions, and more sophisticated medical facilities as well.
Q: Why are we going to space when we have problems on Earth?
A: Spending on space exploration is actually very modest (NASA’s current budget is roughly 0.5% of the U.S. federal budget). The technologies created for space frequently solve problems on Earth — weather prediction and climate research are made more effective through satellite monitoring, water purification systems help communities that lack clean water, and medical devices invented for space improve the lives of everyone. Space and Earth are not mutually exclusive priorities; developments in the one can be beneficial to the other.
Q: Can people live on Venus or other planets?
A: Venus is quite hostile; its surface temperature is 900 degrees and atmospheric pressure is 90 times that of Earth. Some researchers have suggested floating cities in Venus’s relatively mild upper atmosphere. Others are even less welcoming (Mercury, the outer gas giants). Mars and a few moons are the best places for humans to colonize.
Q: Will we have space elevators?
A: Space elevators — cables from Earth’s surface to space — could be a game changer for access to space by getting rid of the need for rockets. But they would need to use a material stronger than any currently known. Carbon nanotubes offer promise but have far to go. The reality is that space elevators are still theoretical.
Our Destiny Among the Stars
The future of human exploration beyond Earth isn’t just about visiting new places. It’s about the survival of humanity, unlocking access to the solar system’s resources, answering deep questions about life in the universe and reaching a point where future generations can dream beyond what we think is possible.
The modern individual lives in a unique moment in time. We are on a historical threshold. For the first time, the means, the knowledge and the will are coincident. What we decide and how we invest today will determine in the next decades whether people everywhere can live on more than one world, or if we are forever limited to a single planet.
The journey won’t be easy. We will encounter technical difficulties, financial restraints, political challenges and unforeseen risks. Some missions will fail. People might lose their lives. Yet throughout history, we have constantly pushed the envelope and explored places previously unknown to us and accomplished what once seemed unimaginable.
The Moon, Mars, asteroids and worlds beyond are calling out to us. They offer adventure, knowledge, resources and even new homes for humanity. Whether you are a student who dreams of being an astronaut, an engineer who will design tomorrow’s spacecraft or simply someone who gazes up at the stars with wonder — this story is for you.
The future of human exploration above Earth is not on its way; it’s already underway. The right question is not whether we become a spacefaring civilization, but how quickly and how far. The coming chapters of this remarkable story will be authored by those who are alive now.
So look to the night sky tonight. You see that bright red dot right there, that’s Mars? Those thousands of twinkling stars? It is out there that the future for humanity lies, where we are waiting to jump the next giant leap.
